GFOFF Relevant Studies and Resources
Here are the relevant studies with a clickable to take you directly to the study.
Metabolism
Westerterp, Klaas R. “Diet induced thermogenesis.” Nutrition & metabolism vol. 1,1 5. 18 Aug. 2004, doi:10.1186/1743-7075-1-5
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc
Hall, Kevin D et al. “Energy balance and its components: implications for body weight regulation.” The American journal of clinical nutrition vol. 95,4 (2012): 989-94. doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.036350
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc
Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT): a component of total daily energy expenditure.
https://doi.org/10.20463/jenb.2018.0013
The Role of Non-exercise Activity Thermogenesis in Human Obesity.
New predictive equation for resting energy expenditure Mifflin, in healthy individuals. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 51(2), 241–247.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/51.2.241
Levine J. A. (2002). Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT). Best practice & research. Clinical endocrinology & metabolism, 16(4), 679–702.
https://doi.org/10.1053/beem.2002.0227
The role of leptin and ghrelin in the regulation of food intake and body weight in humans: a review. Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 8(1), 21–34.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2006.00270.x
Calorie Deficit & The Carb Insulin Model
Adapted chart from US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010. 7th ed. Washington, DC US Government Printing Office 2010.
Energy balance and obesity: what are the main drivers? Cancer Causes Control
content/pdf/10.1007/s10552-017-0869-z.pdf
Energy Balance and Obesity (Energy Surplus = Obesity) Hill, J. O., Wyatt, H. R., & Peters, J. C. (2012). Energy balance and obesity. Circulation, 126(1), 126–132. https://doi.org/10.1161/
Sustained increases in energy consumption leads to increased body weight(US Food and Agriculture Organization) Hill, J.O., Pagliassotti, M.J. and Peters, J.C. Nongenetic determinants of obesity and fat topography. In: Genetic determinants of obesity, ed. C. Bouchard. Boca Raton: CRC Press, Inc. 35-48, 1994
Energy intake that exceeds energy expenditure is the main driver of weight gain: Energy balance and obesity: what are the main drivers?. Cancer causes & control : CCC, 28(3), 247–258.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-017-0869-z
Obese subjects extremely underestimate energy intake and overestimate of physical activity: Discrepancy between self-reported and actual caloric intake and exercise in obese subjects. The New England journal of medicine, 327(27), 1893–1898.
Calorie restriction and protein pacing leads to weight loss: Protein-Pacing Caloric-Restriction Enhances Body Composition Similarly in Obese Men and Women during Weight Loss and Sustains Efficacy during Long-Term Weight Maintenance. Nutrients, 8(8), 476.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8080476
Calorie deficit and adequate protein causes muscle gain and fat loss: Effect of a hypocaloric diet, increased protein intake and resistance training on lean mass gains and fat mass loss in overweight police officers. Annals of nutrition & metabolism, 44(1), 21–29.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000012817
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10838463/
A brief review of higher dietary protein diets in weight loss: a focus on athletes.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0254-y
Flexible vs. rigid dieting in resistance-trained individuals seeking to optimize their physiques: A randomized controlled trial.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-021-00452-2
Effects of intermittent and continuous calorie restriction on body weight and metabolism over 50 wk: a randomized controlled trial. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 108(5), 933–945.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy196
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30475957/
Intermittent fasting vs standard calorie deficit yielded no difference in long term fat mass, inflammation, or appetite. Intermittent Energy Restriction for Weight Loss: A Systematic Review of Cardiometabolic, Inflammatory and Appetite Outcomes.
https://doi.org/10.1177/10998004221078079
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35531785/
Intermittent versus continuous energy restriction on weight loss and cardio-metabolic outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Transl Med 16, 371 (2018).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-018-1748-4
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30583725/
Effect of the glycemic index of the diet on weight loss, modulation of satiety, inflammation, and other metabolic risk factors: a randomized controlled trial
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24787494/
Both diets led to similar weight loss when calories were controlled. “Effect of Low-Fat vs Low-Carbohydrate Diet on 12-Month Weight Loss in Overweight Adults and the Association With Genotype Pattern or Insulin Secretion: The DIETFITS Randomized Clinical Trial.” JAMA vol. 319,7 (2018): 667-679. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.0245
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29466592/
Low Carb vs Low Fat Diets are equally effective in losing fat while in a calorie deficit: Hall, K. D., & Guo, J. (2017). Obesity Energetics: Body Weight Regulation and the Effects of Diet Composition. Gastroenterology, 152(7), 1718–1727.e3.
https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2017.01.052
Weight loss determined by calorie intake, not the specific diet. Sacks, Frank M et al. “Comparison of weight-loss diets with different compositions of fat, protein, and carbohydrates.” The New England journal of medicine vol. 360,9 (2009): 859-73. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0804748
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19246357/
Healthy strategies for successful weight loss and weight maintenance: a systematic review
Protein
High protein breakfast during calorie deficit lead to greater overall fullness throughout the day: Increased dietary protein consumed at breakfast leads to an initial and sustained feeling of fullness during energy restriction compared to other meal times. The British journal of nutrition, 101(6), 798–803.
https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007114508051532
Relatively high-protein or 'low-carb' energy-restricted diets for body weight loss and body weight maintenance.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/abs/pii/S0031938412002806?via%3Dihub
1.2 - 1.6 g/kg/day of protein is ideal for optimal health in adults: Protein "requirements" beyond the RDA: implications for optimizing health. Applied physiology, nutrition, and metabolism = Physiologie appliquee, nutrition et metabolisme, 41(5), 565–572.
https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2015-0550
1.6 g/kg/day protein is ideal based on training, goals, rate of weight loss, and training vol during the hypocaloric period: Phillips S. M. (2014). A brief review of higher dietary protein diets in weight loss: a focus on athletes. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 44 Suppl 2(Suppl 2), S149–S153.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0254-y
A high protein diet has no harmful effects: A one-year crossover study in resistance-trained males. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/9104792
High protein diet does NOT negatively impact kidneys: Changes in Kidney Function Do Not Differ between Healthy Adults Consuming Higher- Compared with Lower- or Normal-Protein Diets: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxy197
Highly Processed Foods
Calorie intake, not the processing level of food, primary factor of weight gain. Ultra-Processed Diets Cause Excess Calorie Intake and Weight Gain: An Inpatient Randomized Controlled Trial of Ad Libitum Food Intake: Cell Metabolism
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2019.05.020
Ultra-Processed Diets Cause Excess Calorie Intake and Weight Gain: An Inpatient Randomized Controlled Trial of Ad Libitum Food Intake
Texture-based differences in eating rate influence energy intake for minimally processed and ultra-processed meals
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35285882/
Forde CG. Beyond ultra-processed: considering the future role of food processing in human health. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 2023;82(3):406-418. doi:10.1017/S0029665123003014
/F0C80692DBC8871DE4BC4ED1AACF7D8F
Monteiro CA, Cannon G, Levy RB, et al. Ultra-processed foods: what they are and how to identify them. Public Health Nutrition. 2019;22(5):936-941. doi:10.1017/S1368980018003762
nutrition/article/ultraprocessed-
Shaher, Shurooq Asaad Abdulameer et al. “Aspartame Safety as a Food Sweetener and Related Health Hazards.” Nutrients vol. 15,16 3627. 18 Aug. 2023, doi:10.3390/nu15163627
Organic & Natural Foods
The effects of water and non‐nutritive sweetened beverages on weight loss and weight maintenance: A randomized clinical trial
Aspartame Consumption for 12 Weeks Does Not Affect Glycemia, Appetite, or Body Weight of Healthy, Lean Adults in a Randomized Controlled Trial
https://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/S0022316622108151?via%3Dihub
Aspartame, low-calorie sweeteners and disease: regulatory safety and epidemiological issues
https://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/abs/pii/S027869151300495X?via%3Dihub
Artificial sweeteners do not cause weight gain and has been shown to cause weight loss: Laviada-Molina, H., Molina-Segui, F., Pérez-Gaxiola, G., Cuello-García, C., Arjona-Villicaña, R., Espinosa-Marrón, A., & Martinez-Portilla, R. J. (2020). Effects of nonnutritive sweeteners on body weight and BMI in diverse clinical contexts: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 21(7), e13020.
https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13020
Zero calorie sweeteners can cause more weight loss than water when energy balance is involved: Peters, J. C., Beck, J., Cardel, M., Wyatt, H. R., Foster, G. D., Pan, Z., Wojtanowski, A. C., Vander Veur, S. S., Herring, S. J., Brill, C., & Hill, J. O. (2016). The effects of water and non-nutritive sweetened beverages on weight loss and weight maintenance: A randomized clinical trial. Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.), 24(2), 297–304.
https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21327
Zero calories sweetener caused much less subjective feelings of hunger compared to water participants in 12 week study: Peters, J. C., Wyatt, H. R., Foster, G. D., Pan, Z., Wojtanowski, A. C., Vander Veur, S. S., Herring, S. J., Brill, C., & Hill, J. O. (2014). The effects of water and non-nutritive sweetened beverages on weight loss during a 12-week weight loss treatment program. Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.), 22(6), 1415–1421.
https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.20737
Williams, P. R., & Hammitt, J. K. (2001). Perceived risks of conventional and organic produce: pesticides, pathogens, and natural toxins. Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis, 21(2), 319–330.
https://doi.org/10.1111/0272-4332.212114
A Systematic Review of Organic Versus Conventional Food Consumption: Is There a Measurable Benefit on Human Health?. Nutrients, 12(1), 7.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12010007
Smith-Spangler, Crystal et al. “Are organic foods safer or healthier than conventional alternatives?: a systematic review.” Annals of internal medicine vol. 157,5 (2012): 348-66. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-157-5-201209040-00007
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22944875/
Nutritional quality of organic foods: A systemic review August 2009 American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90(3):680-5 August 200990(3):680-5 DOI:10.3945/ajcn.2009.28041
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002916523265636?via%3Dihub
Hurtado-Barroso, Sara et al. “Organic food and the impact on human health.” Critical reviews in food science and nutrition vol. 59,4 (2019): 704-714. doi:10.1080/10408398.2017.1394815
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29190113/
Inflammation
Effect of the Anti-Inflammatory Diet in People with Diabetes and Pre-Diabetes: A Randomized Controlled Feeding Study
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31179163/
Glucose And Lipid Homeostasis And Inflammation In Humans Following An Isocaloric Ketogenic Diet
Isocaloric Diets High in Animal or Plant Protein Reduce Liver Fat and Inflammation in Individuals With Type 2 Diabetes
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27765690/
Seed Oil Inflammation
Inflammation not different between ketogenic diet and low fat diet when calories are equated:
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12949361/
Omega 3 PUFAs may decrease inflammation:
Increasing dietary linoleic acid does not increase tissue arachidonic acid content in adults consuming Western-type diets: a systematic review
https://nutritionandmetabolism.
biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1743-7075-8-36
Omega-6 fatty acids and risk for cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association Nutrition Subcommittee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention
Dietary linoleic acid intake and blood inflammatory markers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content
/articlelanding/2017/fo/c7fo00433h
Biomarkers of Dietary Omega-6 Fatty Acids and Incident Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality
doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.038908
Fruit and Vegetables
Fruit does not increase liver fat: Effect of fructose on markers of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled feeding trials.
https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2014.8
Fruit associated with lower fat levels in liver: Food groups and the likelihood of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114520000914
Fruit intake associated with lower cause of all mortality, heart disease and cancer: Fruit and Vegetable Intake and Mortality: Results From 2 Prospective Cohort Studies of US Men and Women and a Meta-Analysis of 26 Cohort Studies.
Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease, total cancer and all-cause mortality-a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyw319